“To save all men, but especially the Cumans” – St. Dominic’s dreams of converting Steppe warriors

 

“Saint Dominic wanted to save all men, Christian and Saracens, but especially the Cumans and other pagans”

- Friar Rudolf of Faenza at the canonization process of St. Dominic

When we think of St. Dominic’s zeal for the salvation of souls, his apostolate among the Albigensians might come to mind first. Yet throughout his priestly life, the earliest and most persistent object of his missionary zeal remained the Cumans, also known as Kipchak Tatars. This powerful Western Turkic people migrated into Eastern Europe from its homeland around the Aral Sea in the 11^th century, terrorizing Christendom by launching deep raids into Christian lands. They soon also became allies of European empires, fighting for the Hungarians and the Bulgarians. Aside from smaller groups of Cumans who were defeated, settled in the Kingdom of Hungary and christianized, they largely adhered to Tengrism like other Central Asian nomads.

This pagan people attracted the attention of St. Dominic and his saintly companion Diego, Bishop of Osma. Diego intended to leave everything behind to preach to the Cumans, and accompanied by Dominic, he sought the blessing of the Father of Christendom, traveling to Rome in 1204. Pope Innocent III praised their zeal but demanded Diego to return to his bishopric. It appears that the Pope did not want the Spanish church to lose such an exemplary bishop. When Diego died in 1207, the desire for the Cuman mission remained in Dominic’s heart. In the early days of the Dominican Order he would often say: “When we have fully instructed our brethren, we will go to the Cumans, and preach the faith of Christ”. At the first General Chapter of 1220, St. Dominic intended to resign as Master General of his order to fulfill his dream of preaching among the warlike nomads, but his resignation was not accepted by the friars. The following year, the last of his life, the saint saw the foundation of the Dominican Province of Hungary, headed by Paulus Hungarus, who sent friars to preach among the Cumans. After initial hardships—two friars were killed—the Dominicans were successful in converting the Cuman chieftains Bortz and Membrok (possibly Bortz’ son) along with many of their subjects. These conversions laid the foundation for the short-lived Diocese of Cumania in what is now Romania, created by Pope Gregory IX in 1228 and headed by the Dominican Theodoric. The Mongol invasion of 1241 scattered the Cumans and destroyed the diocese, with the Cuman survivors in the Balkans being assimilated by the local populations.

While there no longer exists a distinct Cuman ethnic group, many Turkic peoples in Eastern Europe and Central Asia are related to the Cumans, such as the Nogais or the Kazakhs. May Saint Dominic intercede for them.

Sources:

John C. Rubba, O.P., “The Third Order of St. Dominic”
Theodosia Augusta Drane, “The History of St. Dominic”
J.B. O’Connor, O.P. “Saint Dominic and the Order of Preachers”
Leonhard Lemmens, O.F.M. “Die Heidenmission des Spätmittelalters”
Wikipedia: Roman Catholic Diocese of Cumania

America's missionary crusader

Frater Clifford King (standing on the right) with his confreres after having received his missionary cross for China. (Source: Chicago Province SVD)

Fr. Clifford King was born in Upstate New York in 1888 and entered the Society of the Divine Word in Techny, IL in 1909, fulfilling his childhood desire of becoming a missionary. As a seminarian, he founded the Catholic Student Mission Crusade, which soon had thousands of members and about a million in 1963.

He was sent to China in 1919, still a "frater", to replace the German SVD missionaries who had been expelled during WWI. In 1920, the young missionary was ordained to the priesthood by Bishop Henninghaus, making him the first American priest of the Society of the Divine Word. Msgr. Froewis, who would become a mentor to Fr. King, preached the ordination retreat about holiness, zeal, and learning as characteristics of a missionary.

Fr. King served in many Chinese missions over the next 20 years, only fleeing from the Japanese in 1941 as they approached Beijing. Having arrived in the Philippines, Father soon was forced to escape the Emperor's troops again, this time on a submarine! After the war, he became the secretary of Cardinal Tien, SVD, a position he held until 1960, when at the age of 72, he volunteered for a leper hospital in Papua New Guinea. "I will certainly be happy in New Guinea; because I will work among the poorest of the poor, and God's mercy will be close to us", he said about his new work.

Six years later, King returned to the States, where he wrote his autobiography "I remember" while serving as a chaplain in an Iowa hospital. "America's missionary crusader" died in Techny in 1969.

China remained his great love. He would often start conversations with the words "When I was in China".

May he have joined China's martyrs and saints in Heaven!

“The violent take it by force”: The Little Brothers of St. John the Baptist

Fr. Vincent Lebbe (center) with the Little Brothers of St. John the Baptist

Father Vincent Lebbe

The cradle of one of the Catholic Church’s most austere religious communities stood in Northern China. Its founder Father Vincent Lebbe (1877–1940), a Vincentian missionary from Belgium with a deep love for China and the Chinese, envisioned a monastic foundation that was “truly Chinese”. This vision gave birth to the Little Brothers of St. John the Baptist, whose charism reflects both his ideal of a native Chinese Church and of a monastic order that followed the spirit of the Beatitudes.

As a great advocate of a native Chinese hierarchy at the beginning of the 20^th century, Fr. Lebbe championed the consecration of the first six Chinese bishops in almost 300 years. He also had a deep appreciation for Benedictine monasticism, which developed through visits and letters to the famous abbey of Maredsous, where his brother Adrien had entered religion as Dom Bède. In one of his letters from 1906, Fr. Vincent outlined that any Benedictines coming to China should be “monastic apostles” who worked above all in education and were at the same time deeply embedded in Chinese society. In the early 1920s, he encouraged Fr. Jehan Joliet, O.S.B. of St. Andrew’s Abbey in Bruges to found an inculturated Benedictine monastery dedicated to study in Xishan.

Fr. Lebbe with Bishops Melchior Sun Dezhen 孫德楨 and Zhao Huaiyi 趙懷義.

The final impetus for making a foundation of his own came when Fr. Lebbe visited the Apostolic Prefecture of Lixian in southeastern China along with Bishop Melchior Sun Dezhen, C.M. at the end of 1927. Local priests told him about the difficulties of finding “educated and virtuous” teachers while at the same time not overburdening the mission financially. Fr. Lebbe suggested the foundation of a religious community which would fulfill for free the services hitherto provided by salaried auxiliary personnel. Bishop Sun approved of this idea, and so the Monastery of the Beatitudes was born. Lebbe wrote: “The society to be founded by Bishop Sun would appeal to every adult celibate who desires to render service to the church under the protection of holy vows and community life. (…) Every skill can be used; everyone would be admitted. (…) One essential point: they would form a lay congregation, and all would be absolutely equal. They would have only one community house for the entire prefecture and would return to it whenever their work would not summon them outside”. The community did not remain a lay foundation for long as clerics asked to be admitted as well, but radical equality was maintained nonetheless. No priest was to be served by lay brothers and the hierarchy within the monastic family was based strictly on seniority, not on belonging to the clerical or lay state.

An austere foundation

Soon, six aspiring monks presented themselves to Fr. Lebbe, under the condition that their rule of life be austere. Most of them had desired to enter the Trappist Order at Our Lady of Consolation Abbey, so their idea of the religious life matched the new foundation well. On 16 December 1928 Bishop Sun blessed the Monastery of the Beatitudes in Anguo, situated in his Apostolic Vicariate in northern China. The habit worn by the novices consisted of a grey robe of coarse material, a leather belt and the traditional black Benedictine scapular on which a small cross was embroidered. The furnishing of the religious house breathed the spirit of evangelical poverty and matched the order’s later rule which stipulated that all superfluous adornments be avoided. The monastery buildings resembled “the houses of the farmers around them; the roofs are flat and the walls made of bricks (…) Even during the harshest winter cold there is no heating, for economy’s sake.” The monks’ diet consisted strictly of cereals, vegetables and fruits, excluding all animal products, and thus their table was arguably even more austere than that of the rural communities surrounding them, whose farmers rarely ever ate meat. This life of abnegation is reflected in the order’s motto “the violent take it by force”, referencing Christ’s words in the Gospel of Matthew regarding St. John the Baptist and all those who are striving for the kingdom of Heaven. The monks were to sustain themselves by agricultural work, crafts and lending a helping hand to their neighbors.

A Little Brother carrying vegetables

Just as they followed their patron saint in his mortifications, the Little Brothers of St. John the Baptist also imitated him by announcing Christ to the people through their catechetical work. The monks were to be “Carthusians in the house, apostles outside”, sanctifying themselves at their monastery so they could fruitfully announce the Gospel, as teachers in schools, as catechists, in the ministry among prisoners or in the services of Catholic Action.

Little Brothers pronouncing their vows

The Divine Office in Chinese

Following his Benedictine influence, Fr. Lebbe wanted the opus Dei to be “above all else”. To make the Liturgy of the Hours more accessible to his Chinese religious, he started by translating the little Office of Our Lady and the Office of the Dead into Chinese (recordings can be found here). Parts of the texts were taken from the Chinese Missal authorized by Paul V in the 17^th century, but which had never been used in practice. His death in 1940 prevented him from sinicizing the entire Divine Office, yet Lebbe had still put together a choir book of seven hundred pages containing the Offices for the principal feasts of the year. It was masterfully bound and decorated with Chinese-style miniatures, a product of the monastery’s print shop.

The Ave maris stella in Chinese written by Fr. Lebbe

The Little Brothers in the crucible of war and persecution

By 1933 the community numbered 110 members and the first daughter houses were founded in other vicariates. That same year Fr. Lebbe left the Vincentians with the approval of his superiors and officially became a professed member of the Little Brothers. Rome had been watching the developments in China and encouraged Fr. Lebbe and his disciples in their efforts.

When Japan invaded Northern China in 1937, Fr. Lebbe appealed to the patriotic spirit of his religious to help their people as medics at the front. The brothers soon became very popular with wounded soldiers and maintained their monastic life even in the turmoil of the battlefields, observing all rules, praying the Divine Office and keeping the silence as strictly as any Trappist would. Twelve little brothers were killed by Communists in early 1940, while another monk was beheaded by the Japanese at the monastery in Anguo. Fr. Vincent himself was captured by Communists in 1940 and subjected to weeks of torture. He was released on 13 April and died on 24 June of the same year, the Feast of St. John the Baptist.

Fr. Lebbe on his death bed with Bishop Paul Yu Bin leading the prayers

When World War II transitioned into the Chinese Civil War, the brothers had to leave their motherhouse in Anguo and move to the Monastery of the Beatitudes in Peking. The Chinese priest Alexander Cao became “Brother Servant”, the superior of the Little Brothers. The motherhouse was moved south to Hong Kong, where 13 brothers ministered to the many refugees fleeing the mainland. According to Alexander Cao, there were still over 50 religious behind “the bamboo curtain” in 1956, persecuted and in several instances killed by the Communists. These Little Brothers followed in the footsteps of the Chinese martyrs, the secondary patrons of their order. Like many other Catholic orders, the Little Brothers moved to Taiwan, establishing their motherhouse in Taichung in 1954. The Little Brothers are currently present in Taiwan, Vietnam, the Philippines, and America.

If you would like to take a deeper dive into the history of this fascinating order, I warmly recommend Christian Monks on Chinese Soil by Matteo Nicolini-Zani. It was my main source for this article and contains a draft of the original rule as well as a chapter on the Little Sisters of Saint Therese of the Child Jesus, the female counterpart of the Little Brothers, also founded by Fr. Lebbe.

(All pictures from Whitworth University)

When Don Bosco named a Trappist monastery in China

 

Our Lady of Consolation monastery, Yangjiaping (early 1900s)

In 1880, the bishops of northern China met in a synod in which they expressed the desire to establish in China a Trappist monastery or that of another austere order, “so that authentic monastic life may be known in this region and at the same time the salvation of all may be advanced through the prayers and example of the religious”. Two years later, the Congregation of the Propaganda encouraged Bishop Delaplace, Vicar Apostolic of Peking, in his desire to invite the Trappists to his mission. These were the first steps in the foundation of the Trappist monastery of Yangjiaping, known under the title of Our Lady of Consolation.

How did the monastery receive its name? Dom Éphrem, prior of Tamié in Savoy and one of the founding monks of Yangjiaping, was friends with Saint John Bosco. Shortly before leaving for China in 1883, he met Don Bosco in Turin and asked him about a name for the Trappist’s first monastery in the Celestial Empire. The saint replied “Our Lady of Consolation” and wrote a message on a holy card of the image of the Consolata of Turin that read: “May God bless you, your work, and may the Holy Virgin always protect you!”

The picture with the saint’s encouragement was preserved until the Communists burned down the monastery, destroying the image. Thirty-three monks of the abbey died as martyrs in the Communist persecution.

(Source: Matteo Nicolini-Zani: Christian Monks on Chinese Soil)

Upcoming missionary trips of the Omnes Gentes Project

 I recently spoke to Fr. Federico Highton about the upcoming missionary trips of the Order of Saint Elias / Omnes Gentes Project. They are planning to translate the works of Fr. Ippolito Desideri, S.J., one of the first missionaries to Tibet. But they do not stop at the theoretical level: they have an introductory course of the Tibetan language offered by a former Buddhist monk to prepare volunteers for a trip to Tibet next year. And that's not all. Please especially keep the "Fatwa mission" in an undisclosed country in your prayers.

If you or anyone you know would like to participate in a missionary trip to Tibet or elsewhere in Asia, Africa, and the Americas, you can check out the schedule and apply here: Mission Special Force

Great articles on the missions at Unam Sanctam Catholicam

My friend Boniface over at Unam Sanctam Catholicam has a number of excellent articles on the missions on his Blog and website, all of them shedding light on lesser known episodes of missionary history. Here are some of my favorites:

Thanks for the homily, Father — about a rare homily on the missions by a missionary priest

The Manila Synod of 1582 — about the issues that an early synod in a missionary territory had to deal with

Archbishop Poblete’s Missionary Journey to Cavite — about the attempts of the Archbishop of Manila to end local slavery

The 1775 Burning of San Diego de Alcalá — about wayward converts attacking a mission founded by St. Junipero

Segregated Catholic Schools in New Orleans — about Black Catholic schools

The Martyrdom of Salvatore Lilli — about the martyrdom of Blessed Salvatore Lilli, O.F.M. at the hand of the Turks

Sung Catechism in the Jesuit missions  — about the catechetical use of song among the Indians

There's Always a Priest Shortage in Missionary Areas — on viri probati not being a solution to an age-old problem in the missions

In honor of Old Cow-Thomas

Naligen or Thomas, as he would be called after his baptism, was an Aborigine of the Nyulnyul people in Northwestern Australia. It seems he was born sometime in the 1860s near Beagle Bay. As a young man, Naligen was blackbirded on a guano ship off the Australian coast, getting to know white people in the worst possible way as he and his fellow natives were basically treated as slaves by the European crew.

Upon returning home after some months, he heard of other Europeans who settled in Beagle Bay. At first, he wanted to avoid them at any cost, but a friend told him they were laib wamba, good men who let the blacks live in freedom, treated them well and instructed them. They were the French Trappists of Beagle Bay. At first he did not have any desire for the white man's religion, but the example of the monks won him over, especially as he was told that God loved the Aborigines just as much as the Europeans. After his baptism, Thomas received the sacraments faithfully, despite still spending much time away from the mission hunting in the bush or scavenging the beaches. The Trappists had to leave in 1901 as their lifestyle wasn't compatible with the mission, but the employment Thomas had found on the mission as a handyman continued under the Pallottine Fathers from Germany. He took care of their cattle, for which he was affectionately nicknamed "Old Cow-Thomas".

Thomas died a victim of the Spanish Flu that arrived in remote Beagle Bay in December of 1919, making him one of many Aborigines who fell victim to the disease. Thomas welcomed death serenely, fortified by the holy sacraments, as he went to his Creator who loves the Aborigines just as much as the whites.

Did Canadian missionaries exterminate Indian languages?

In the wake of the Kamloops Residential school scandal of 2021 surrounding supposed mass graves on the premises of the Catholic school for Indian children in British Columbia, I wrote two Facebook posts on the topic of the alleged “cultural genocide”. I would like to offer them here as a commentary of a contemporary event whose sensationalist media coverage and Justin Trudeau's imprudent public comments led to multiple arson attacks on churches across Canada. To this day, no conclusive evidence of any mass graves in Kamloops has been presented.

Introduction to the Wawa shorthand developed by Fr. Lejeune, O.M.I.

Post from 4 July 2021:

“Here goes my take on Indian residential schools in Western Canada run by the Catholic Church, or rather one aspect, which is nonetheless important.

The media often repeat how residential schools run by the Canadian government and staffed by various Christian denominations prohibited the use of Native languages by students. It is hard to come up with any legislation or rules of individual institutes; rather all texts only seem to agree that “Indigenous languages were suppressed, sometimes violently”. If anything, such an approach by Catholic missionaries, especially the Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate (O.M.I.) was probably rather ill-advised pedagogics rather than a deliberate “cultural genocide”. Fr. Jean Lejeune, O.M.I., who was based in Kamloops, the center of the recent controversy, was one of the most important linguists of Western Canada. From 1894 to 1923, he published the multilingual newspaper “Kamloops Wawa” (Talk of Kamloops), which in addition to English and French, was written in Chinook Jargon using a French shorthand system and occasionally in Nlaka'pamuxtsin, Secwepmectsin and St'at'imcets. It contained religious texts such as liturgical translations as well as community news. Msgr. Émile Grouard, O.M.I. was another talented linguist who published several books in Cree, Chipewyan and the Beaver language, all of which he spoke. He also composed hymns in Inuktitut.

Venerable Vital Grandin, O.M.I. is now considered the disgraced architect of the Catholic residential school system and quoted as writing to Public Works Minister Henri Langevin: “To become civilized they should be taken with the consent of their parents & made to lead a life different from their parents and cause them to forget the customs, habits & language of their ancestors“. At the same time, this saintly missionary bishop admonished all young missionaries who thought they could perform their duties without knowing the Indian languages or without proper dedication to their study (see “Proclaiming the Gospel to the Indians and the Metis” by Raymond Huel). He also recommended that missionaries associate themselves with the children to learn the proper accent and intonation of their language (idem).

Bishop Vital Grandin

If indeed the use of Indian languages was absolutely banned at residential schools, it was wrong of the missionaries to do so. At the same time, it is hard to reconcile how those very missionaries who were the first Whites to systematically analyze Indian languages and put them into written form would deliberately engage in a “cultural genocide” after having dedicated themselves to such an arduous task. It becomes clear from the writings of Msgr. Grandin that he desired his students to find their place in the general Canadian society as tradespeople and housewives rather than following the nomadic lifestyle of their parents and ancestors, a lifestyle which in the long run would have left them at a great disadvantage in the face of a growing European population.” Post from 12 July 2021:

“I would like to revisit the topic of Canadian residential schools, looking more at the question of languages being suppressed as part of a purported "cultural genocide" as the media and Native rights advocacy groups call it.

It is evident that learning English was one of the benchmarks of a successful education for Indian children in residential schools, so the use of Native languages was either discouraged or forbidden. At the same time, one has to consider that many of these languages had a very low number of speakers in geographically isolated areas, often most likely not reaching more than 10,000 speakers in total, so being monolingual in such a language would put anyone in a rapidly changing society that used English as its vehicular language at a serious disadvantage.

The Oblates themselves realized that there were abuses in regard to the severity with which this language policy was enforced, as Volume 1 of the Truth and Reconciliation Report points out when referring to how the missionaries at the end of the 19th century were often fluent in native languages, an ability that decreased in the following decades, also due to the fact that the Indian children were now required to speak English in the schools:

“The degree to which the government policy came to override the missionary practice is perhaps best expressed in the report of Oblate Superior General Théodore Labouré. After an extensive inspection of Oblate missions and schools in 1935, Labouré expressed concern over the number of Oblates who could not speak Aboriginal languages, and the strictness with which prohibitions against speaking Aboriginal languages were enforced. He wrote:

“The ban on children speaking Indian, even during recreation, was so strict in some of our schools that any failure would be severely punished—to the point that children were led to consider the speaking of their native tongue to be a serious offense, and when they returned home they were ashamed to speak it with their parents.”

In what may have been a response to Labouré’s criticism, in 1939, the Oblate Fathers’ Committee on Indian Missions adopted a resolution that First Nations people be taught “to read in their own language and in syllabic characters or Roman characters,” and that nuns and religious teachers “learn to read and understand the languages of those who are in their charge.””

The same report also points out how Msgr. Ovide Charlebois, O.M.I. intended to open a French-only school in northern Saskatchewan, but met with the resistance from Indian Affairs as they would have liked to impose English on the Natives, although many of them spoke French and threatened to withdraw their children from the school if English was imposed. One chief observed that English was of no use to them as they would communicate in French with the people of their region.

We see that the case is far from being clear-cut. We have the missionary tradition of learning native languages, we see that the Oblates recognized that English was enforced too severely, and then there were Indians who wished their children to be taught French instead of English.”

St. Rose's missionary zeal

 "Not less than about the fate of the inhabitants of Chile who also returned to paganism [like some Indians did in Peru], the saint wept about the Chinese and the Turks and desired to be torn to pieces if thus she could save a single soul. She could not travel to these countries, but her fervent words enkindle the zeal of preachers and missionaries and her prayers accompany their apostolic wanderings."

(Translated from "Leben der Heiligen Gottes", Innsbruck 1866).

Catholicism in Dagestan: the Diocese of the Caspian Mountains

 

Map of the North Caucasus area with the Diocese of the Caspian Mountains at the bottom

Dagestan’s history has been shaped by its location at the intersection between Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and Central Asia. While a majority Muslim region today, the area of present-day Dagestan was home to a significant Catholic population in the late Middle Ages. In the 14^th century, the Franciscans of the “Societas Peregrinantium”, a missionary group composed of Franciscans and Dominicans, made many converts in the western parts of Cumania, the realm of the Qipchak Tatars. As a consequence, numerous dioceses were springing up between the Crimean Peninsula and the western shores of the Caspian Sea. Among them was the “diocese of the Caspian Mountains”, whose main towns were “Chomek, Thuma, Tarchu, Dergweli, Michaha”[1] according to Pope Boniface IX. The faithful appear to have been mainly from the ethnic group of the Kaitag, whose first apostle was the Franciscan friar John of Ziquia, a native Circassian from the Black Sea coast and Archbishop of Matrega.
In the 1390s, the armies of Timur invaded the area and killed or captured many Christians and destroyed churches and convents. During the following decades, mentions of the Church in the Caspian Mountains are sparse: In 1421, Pope Martin V appoints Friar Ambrosius Scipionis as its bishop and mentions that the faithful, who are “surrounded by unbelievers, heretics and schismatics”, are particularly dear to his heart. He grants a plenary indulgence at the hour of death to all who dwell there or go there. In 1433, Pope Eugene IV mentions the many Christians there living under the threat of losing their faith due to the lack of preachers and appoints the Franciscan Cornelius as bishop. The Venetian traveler Giosafat Barbaro reports that in the middle of the 15^th century, there were still faithful in Dagestan, looked after by the Franciscans, and that they belonged to the Latin, Greek, and Armenian rites. The Ottoman domination of the Black Sea finally cut off the contact to the Catholic community of the Caspian Mountains by the end of the century. The spread of Islam in the North Caucasus brought an end to the native Catholic presence in Dagestan.

 

Sources:

Lemmens, Die Heidenmission des Spätmittelalters

Richard, La papauté et les missions d'Orient au Moyen-Âge (XIII-XIVème siècle)

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[1] According to Jean Richard, these places correspond to the settlements of Kumukh, Tjumen, Tarki, Dorgeli and Mukhakh, respectively.

Fray Martín de Rada, Augustinian pioneer in China

Fr. de Rada came to the Philippines as a missionary in the early 1560s. In light of the Spanish interest in China, he traveled there in 1575 to observe the local customs, summarizing his findings in his work "Relaçion verdadera de las cosas del Reyno de Taibin". A man of great erudition, he collected a number of Chinese books on a variety of topics ranging from medicine to mathematics to religion to better understand the ideas of the people in the Celestial Empire. Some researchers consider his journey the first scientific exploration of China by a European.
Fr. de Rada showed himself open-minded towards societal norms in China, permitting his delegation to do the "kowtow" prostration before the viceregent. He argued that such a sign of respect could contribute to the conversion of this great empire, "which the demon held in its power".
There are some claims on the internet that he proposed the armed conquest of China, but I have found no source to corroborate this. His goals appear to have been strictly missionary.

To celebrate the election of our Holy Father Pope Leo XIV, I plan to write more extensively about the Augustinian missions in China (and possibly beyond) soon.

From Muslim crown prince to Jesuit priest

Muley Muhammad el-Attaz (sometimes styled “el Abbas”) was born in 1631 in the Moroccan city of Fez as the son of the Saadian sultan Abd al-Malik al-Mu'tasim and his Andalusian wife Huali. The young crown prince was an accomplished commander and well-versed in the Quran. Sometime in the 1650s, he attempted to cross the Mediterranean to make the Hajj, but was captured by the Maltese. His captivity was mild and Muley Muhammad received the permission to gather other Muslims around him to explain the Quran to them. Yet when his ransom had been paid by the ruler of Tunis, he refused to return and instead asked to be received into the Catholic Church. On 31 July 1656 the crown prince of the Saddian dynasty was baptized, taking the name Baltasar Loyola de Mendez in honor of Baltasar Mandols, the commander of the Maltese Order who had captured him, and of the great saint on whose feast day he was baptized. Baltasar soon started studying for the priesthood and in 1661 entered the Society of Jesus in Rome.

After his priestly ordination, Fr. Loyola de Mendez worked successfully among the Muslim captives of Genoa, Naples, and other Italian ports, converting up to 2,000 of them. It is said that he even called a notable Muslim scholar from a well-known mosque in Fez to his side, converting him to Christianity. Fr. Baltasar desired to return to Morocco to preach the Gospel there, but was prevented from doing so by the civil war raging against Saadian rule. Instead, the Jesuit general granted him the permission to travel to the Muslim Mughal Empire as a missionary.

While traveling across southern Europe to reach India, the former crown prince garnered much attention among the clergy and the people, who called him the "king of the Jesuits". His meek yet regal demeanor made a lasting impression.

A portrait of Fr. Baltasar Mendez de Loyola, painted secretly without his knowledge

Unfortunately, his life was cut short by a fever he contracted in Madrid, where on his deathbed he converted the Moroccan slave of his doctor. Fr. Baltasar Loyola de Mendez, S.J. died on 15 September 1667. He was buried with royal honors at the behest of the Queen of Spain.

Fr. Baltasar's life soon inspired many plays in the Jesuits' educational institutions an beyond, with Calderón's "El gran príncipe de Fez" being the most famous.

A short missionary history of Afghanistan

 

The coat of arms of the sui iuris mission of Afghanistan. The motto Orietur stella, a star shall rise, is taken from the Book of Numbers, alluding to the Messiah. The processional cross of Herat is shown in the background. (Source: Duneir)

Afghanistan, despite having been called “the crossroads of Asia”, has been one of the least accessible missionary territories for the Catholic Church, as a permanent Catholic presence that engages in missionary work among the peoples of Afghanistan has yet to be established. Nonetheless, the relatively short history of the Church in the Hindu Kush is a fascinating and eventful one.

Uncertain beginnings

There is no conclusive proof of a Catholic presence in the area of modern-day Afghanistan in apostolic times. While the historic region of Bactria, which includes parts of Afghanistan, is said to have been visited by St. Thomas the Apostle, there is no evidence he visited Afghanistan proper. The earliest Christian presence is certainly East Syriac in origin, with the Assyrian Church of the East, also referred to as the Nestorian church, having established dioceses in that part of the Persian Empire in the 5^th century. Herat in western Afghanistan became an important Metropolitan See. The Islamic conquest would reach Afghanistan in 642, although full Islamicization was not completed in most of Afghanistan until centuries later. The Pahlavi inscriptions on the so-called Processional cross of Herat, dating back to the 7^th century, bear testimony to the theological struggle with the new religion from Arabia. “There are no three gods” is one of the affirmations on the cross, countering the prevalent Islamic accusation that Christians are polytheists. By the 14^th century, the Nestorian community had disappeared, and Afghanistan had become nearly entirely Muslim with a small pagan pocket in today’s Nuristan province, which was converted to Islam in the late 19^th century.

The processional cross of Herat (source: Sasanika Project)

 Centuries of sporadic contact

Although Western and Central Asia were visited by Catholic missionaries in the Middle Ages, Afghanistan remained secluded. While both Blessed Oderic of Pordenone and John of Montecorvino visited Persia in the 14^th century, they bypassed Afghanistan in their travels. The first recorded visit of a Catholic missionary to Afghanistan is that of Fr. Antoni de Montserrat, one of the Jesuits who visited the court of the Mughal Emperor Akbar I. Akbar I was friendly towards the European missionaries and asked de Montserrat to accompany him on his military expedition to Afghanistan in 1581. The next year, Fr. de Montserrat’s Portuguese confrere Bento de Góis passed through northern Afghanistan on his way to China. De Góis’ short stay would be the last validated Catholic foray into Afghanistan for nearly 300 years.

Bento de Góis, S.J.

When the British Empire fought the Second Anglo-Afghan War from 1878 to 1880, the Holy See asked the Mill Hill Missionaries to provide the pastoral care for the Catholics among the British soldiers. The plan was for Mill Hill to staff a permanent mission after British victory, but this idea was abandoned and the missionaries withdrew to the British Indian side where they would take over the Apostolic Prefecture of Kafiristan and Kashmir. It would take another 50 years for the next chapter of Church history in Afghanistan to be written—in a most unlikely way.

A 70-year-old parish priest as a one-man missionary expedition

One day in the spring of 1928, the 70-year-old parish priest of St. Peter and Paul in Chicago, Fr. George Blatter, read a story about Afghanistan in a missionary magazine. The thought that there was no missionary in the country and preaching any other religion than Islam would carry the death sentence deeply affected him. Did Christ not command to go and teach all nations? He decided to travel to the forbidden empire to offer the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass there to pave the way for future missionaries. Fr. Blatter bade leave from his archbishop, Cardinal Mundelein, who gave him his blessing. Finally, on July 23, 1930, after a long trip by sea and land and having to wait to get his documents in order, he was able cross into Afghanistan. Despite many difficulties, such as being spied on, he was able to achieve the goal of his daring journey: celebrate Holy Mass in Afghanistan. Undeterred by the suspicion to which government agents subjected him, he would wear his priestly collar in public and oftentimes the cassock as well.

Fr. Blatter was invited to the Royal Court of King Mohammed Nadir Khan, whose minister of Foreign Affairs listened with interest to the Catholic priest explaining Christianity and suggesting the construction of pharmacies and hospitals. The king himself received him in an audience and wished him well.

After contracting Malaria in September 1930, Fr. Blatter had to leave Afghanistan for good but subsequently traveled to Bangalore in India to report to the Apostolic Delegature, which took steps to provide money for the first permanent missionary in Afghanistan. On January 20, 1932, George Blatter was received by Pope Pius XI in a private audience. He told the Holy Father that he wanted to return to Afghanistan despite his old age. His wish did not come true and Blatter died in Chicago in 1937. Nonetheless, he was instrumental in ushering in the longest continuous Catholic presence in the history of the country.

The Barnabites and the sui iuris mission

Already in the early 1920s, King Ammanullah had shown his willingness to permit European embassies to receive a Catholic priest for their pastoral needs. It appears as if Pope Pius XI seized this opportunity of Blatter’s recent contact with King Mohammed’s court to send a priest to Afghanistan. On 25 January 1931, the “Pope of the missions” wrote to the superior general of the Clerics Regular of St. Paul (Barnabites), Fr. Ferdinando Napoli: “Sons of St. Paul, you must embrace with enthusiasm the opportunity that opens the door for you to evangelize new peoples. You will write one of the most beautiful pages of the history of your congregation, because it is up to you, after twenty centuries of Christianity, to be the first to penetrate this land and bring the light of the Gospel there. It will continue to cost sacrifices, but without sacrifice there are no great works.” The Barnabites would send the learned Fr. Egidio Caspani and who would go on to become the first superior of the US province of the Barnabites. He was accompanied by Fr. Ernesto Cagnacci, who had to hide his priestly identity in Afghanistan and present himself as Fr. Caspani’s “study aide”, as only one official priest was permitted in the country. A chapel dedicated to Our Lady of Divine Providence was built on the premises of the Italian embassy, thus avoiding the diplomatic headaches of building a church on what was considered Muslim territory. Frs. Caspani and Cagnacci served the European community and traveled the land doing research, but did not engage in active missionary ministry. When these first two Barnabites left for the United States, they were replaced by Fr. Giovanni Bernasconi. Caspani would later publish the book “Afghanistan, crocevie dell'Asia“ (Afghanistan, crossroads of Asia), about his experience in the country.

In 1954, the Barnabites were joined by the Little Sisters of Jesus in Kabul, who were going to work as nurses at the government hospital for many decades. Another Catholic presence was that of Fr. Serge de Beaurecueil, O.P., who gave lectures on Islamic mysticism at the University of Kabul and took care of street children. He had to leave Afghanistan when the Soviets invaded in 1983. The first Taliban government would not permit any other Catholic religious than the Little Sisters to work in Afghanistan. The Barnabites had to recall Fr. Giuseppe Moretti, then the only priest in the country.

When the international coalition toppled the Taliban in 2001, a new chapter began for the Church in Afghanistan. Pope John Paul II asked Fr. Moretti to return, and the first Mass in nearly a decade was offered on 27 January 2002 by Fr. Ivan Lai, O.F.M. for ISAF soldiers and civilian personnel of foreign countries. On 16 May 2002, the Pope established a sui iuris mission led by the Barnabites. The number of religious increased moderately, and the Church opened a technical school in Herat. The case of Abdul Rahman, an Afghan man who converted to Catholicism in the 1990s and was sentenced to death for apostasy from Islam by the new Western-backed government in 2006, illustrates the great obstacles to genuine missionary work in the country. Western pressure finally led to his acquittal and exit from Afghanistan.

During the period of heightened Taliban insurgency, there was a ray of hope: On 13 October 2017, on the anniversary of the final apparitions of Our Lady in Fatima, Fr. Giovanni Scalese, the superior of the mission, consecrated the country to the Immaculate Heart of Mary.

The current situation

The second Taliban takeover foreseeably brought another end to the Catholic mission in Afghanistan. Fr. Scalese has expressed his desire to return to the country, but the increasingly fanatical stance of the Taliban government makes this prospect highly unlikely. In 2024, Pope Francis called on the international community for the “forgotten” people of Afghanistan as the country was affected by severe floods.

May Afghanistan not be forgotten in the prayers of the Church and her children, so that many a glorious page of Afghan Church history will still be written.

Sources:

Vatican News, “Pope's appeal for Afghanistan helps a 'forgotten' people”
https://www.vaticannews.va/en/church/news/2024-05/last-priest-to-have-been-in-afghanistan-pope-appeal-helps.html

Mill Hill Missionaries, “Part 5: Mission to South Asia”
https://millhillmissionaries.com/our-history/part-5-mission-to-south-asia/

 L’Osservatore Romano,“Non v’è opera grande senza sacrifici” https://www.osservatoreromano.va/it/news/2020-10/quo-248/non-v-e-opera-grande-senza-sacrifici.html

NSC Network, “The Pahlavi inscribed Processional Cross of Herat, Afghanistan  and the Pahlavi Crosses of South India: A Comparative Study of  Religio Cultural traditions  of  the Churches of India and Parthia”’
https://www.nasrani.net/cross-study-religio-cultural-traditions-churches-india-parthia/

Wikipedia, “Mission sui iuris of Afghanistan”
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission_sui_juris_d%27Afghanistan

Die Weltmission der katholischen Kirche, 1935 Nr. 3/4

 

 

The glorious vocation of the missionary brother

Missionary brothers working with their apprentices in the Benedictine mission of Inkamana (South Africa)

"The missionary brother is the unknown apostle in the Catholic world mission. Inflamed by the love of God and of the souls in the heathen world, the missionary brother sacrifices his own self and all that is dear to him to help the missionary [priest] in foreign countries in converting, teaching and educating the natives.

The missionary brother carries out his apostolic work through the work of his hands. The calluses of his hands spell out the sermon of the price, but also of the blessing of Christian labor.

The missionary brother is of the greatest importance for the missionary priest, for the missionary work and for the missionary country. Without the dedicated work of the missionary brothers, the work of the missionary priests would experience the greatest obstacles. It is only through the missionary brother that the missionary's hands are freed for the service of souls. The missionary brother keeps many financial worries and expenses away from the mission; he takes care of the temporal, the material work, the house and the farm; he complements the missionary in conversion work, teaching and education. The missionary brother doubles the missionary's strength in many respects. Without a missionary brother, the missionary priest's hands are very often tied. The missionary brother is really the missionary's helping, supporting and complementary brother."

This quote by the great missiologist Fr. Robert Streit, O.M.I. emphasizes both how important the missionary brother is for successful missionary work and yet how little attention and appreciation this vocation has received—one might argue that it is virtually unknown in our days. Let us therefore take a closer look at the essential vocation of the missionary brother using historical examples.

Tradesmen of God

Since the discovery of the Americas, which ushered in the modern missionary era, missionary work has been mainly organized around mission stations that often resemble the monastic foundations that evangelized and civilized large parts of Europe. In addition to churches or chapels, many such mission stations had their own farming operations, workshops, schools, and sometimes also pharmacies and infirmaries. Naturally, this requires many skilled persons to fulfill these tasks—or in the early days of a particular mission, a small number of brothers who each had a great variety of skills. Before leaving for China in the mid-1880s, Br. Joseph Overlöper, S.V.D., a carpenter by trade, learned several other skills as well: candle making, soap making, glazing, bricklaying, painting, farming and gardening.

As Br. Joseph’s case shows, construction and farming skills understandably stood in very high demand in the missions. Many significant church buildings that could rival their European counterparts were constructed under the supervision of missionary brothers. Br. Petrus Gernert O.S.B., one of the Martyrs of Tokwon, oversaw the construction of Tokwon Abbey in Korea, in addition to directing the landscaping work surrounding the vast monastic premises. He also built several other chapels and churches for the mission in central Korea.

Some regions of the world posed particular difficulties with regard to building materials: virtually all churches in Papua New Guinea, from chapels to cathedrals, were built from wood. The wood had to be sourced from the country’s dense jungles, which meant that missionary brothers had to spend months at lumbering sites where they worked with their native crews.

Bishop Henninghaus with S.V.D. brothers in China

Brother cook’s demanding work was not as visible but played an essential role in maintaining the health and good spirits of the missionaries. When missionaries from far afield assembled at the main mission station for conferences and much needed vacations, the cook would serve European dishes that were a welcome dietary change for men who often only lived on sparse rations of native food.

The brothers who served as medics and pharmacists were not only able to cure diseases for which the sick could not find help among traditional healers, they opened the gates of Heaven to many, young and old, by instructing and baptizing patients who were at the doorstep of eternity.

The cathedral of Alexishafen, Papua New Guinea

Their trades often brought missionary brothers into close contact with the people of the country, with fellow workers, apprentices, patients or clients—and sometimes even with the powerful of this world. In the early stages of a mission among populations that lived as hunter-gatherers, the missionary brothers were the ones who introduced the future Christians to organized farming and crafts, thus ensuring a degree of material wellbeing that enabled a sedentary lifestyle and instilling knowledge that helped the natives keep pace with an increasingly Europeanized colonial society. In East Asia, missionary brothers took part in the technological exchange, especially at the Court of the Chinese Emperors. Brother Franz Stadlin, S.J., an expert watchmaker from Switzerland, was held in the highest regard by the Kangxi Emperor. When Stadlin died in 1740, the emperor held a lavish funeral ceremony for this humble religious. Many missionary brothers received deep insights into the culture and the language of the peoples of their missions. Several S.V.D. brothers were known as excellent speakers of the Chinese language who understood the Chinese mindset well. A popular brother could make a great apostle and increase the reputation of the missions among non-Christians significantly.

True missionaries

The missionary brothers were true missionaries, not only because they did all their work as consecrated men in the service of God and His Church, but also in virtue of their teaching and spreading the faith directly. Already in the early stages of the modern missionary period, St. Francis Xavier was keenly aware of the need for lay missionaries to complement missionary priests when educating children. As early as his first year in the missions, Francis Xavier asked St. Ignatius to send him auxiliary missionaries to teach children. Later he expressed the desire that every large missionary station with at least two priests would receive an auxiliary teacher to teach the catechism to children, visit the sick and baptize dying children. Saint Pedro de Gante is a premier example of a lay brother whose apostolate largely revolved around direct missionary work. He devised an innovative pictographic catechism with which he reached thousands of natives in Mexico in the early stages of the evangelization of the New World.

Pictographic catechism by Saint Pedro de Gante explaining the Most Holy Trinity

Men of prayer and sacrifice

“In the missions, they [the missionary brothers] shall love the natives with a tender and deep love, they shall pray without ceasing for their salvation and be willing to sacrifice everything for the spiritual benefit of their poor souls” (Chapter 8, Article 2 of the constitutions of the Spiritans)

In the lives of more than a few missionary brothers, we see this rule that Venerable Francis Libermann drew up for his own religious faithfully put into practice. The aforementioned Br. Joseph Overlöper preferred to travel at night so he could dedicate himself to undisturbed prayer. Br. Konstantin, a missionary in Togo, was the beekeeper of the S.V.D. mission. Countless times he was stung in the process, but the good brother turned it into a penance that he offered up for the success of the missions: “It does not matter. This is for the poor heathens.” How many hours did missionary brothers spend in front of the tabernacle after a day of exhausting work, in many cases in tropical climates!

Numerous missionary brothers sacrificed their health, dying an early death in the service of the missions. And there were brothers whom God chose for the highest form of sacrifice, martyrdom. Such was the case with St. Andreas Bauer, O.F.M., who was killed during the Boxer Rebellion in China, or the 13 Missionary Benedictine brothers who died in Communist death camps during the Korean War and whose beatification process has been initiated, just to name a few.

The missionary brother is not only an essential handyman for the missions, but he is also a true apostle. May we see a resurgence of this beautiful vocation.